Rutherford B. Hayes

The story of Rutherford Bichard Hayes', a Republican lawyer from Ohio, election to the presidency is well known- he won by just one vote, after all.



In the beginnings of Reconstruction in 1876, Hayes faced off against Democratic nominee Samuel Tilden to run the country. The incumbent Republican president, Ulysses Grant, oversaw an economic downturn, which was a blow to Republican popularity. In fact, three days after the election, the electoral votes were 184-165 in Tilden's favor. At the time, the necessary number of electoral votes was 185, leaving Tilden just one short. Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina's votes were not decided, as both parties were accused of fraud, leaving 20 disputed votes.

A commission of 5 representatives, 5 senators, and 5 Justices met to vote on which candidate would be awarded all 20 disputed votes. Of the 15 officials, 7 were democratic, 7 were Republican, and the sole mostly-independent was Joseph Bradley. Bradley and the 7 Republicans voted for Hayes, winning the election for Hayes by 8-7 within the commission and 185-184 for the whole country.



Of course, this incredibly close election outraged Southern Democrats, many of whom were fed up with Radical Republicans leading the country. Protests even included talk of a march on Washington, though Grant increased security and no such march took place. To appease the Democrats to accept the commission's decision to make Hayes president, the Republicans negotiated with the Democrats to decide what is now known as the Compromise of 1877.

In this compromise, Republicans agreed to remove all federal troops from former Confederate states, appoint one Southern Democrat to Hayes' cabinet, build a transcontinental railroad, and help industrialize the South in exchange for the South's peaceful acceptance of the transition in presidents. For these concessions, many Radical Republicans looked down on Hayes' administration. Starting from Hayes' presidency, the Republican party started a noticeable shift away from civil rights issues and towards economic issues.

During his term, Hayes tackled corruption in businesses and political parties. He opposed the spoils system and the exchange of money for gold, helping to reverse the effects of the Panic of 1873 in the process. He strongly enforced the Monroe Doctrine in terms of Latin America, helping to settle disputes and keep France away from Colombia and Panama. He laid the groundwork for the Chinese Exclusion Act, a race-specific restricting immigration bill passed after his term.



Democrats had sought to impeach Hayes during his term, but due to Republicans, the plan never saw fruition. Hayes declined to run for re-election and left the presidency in 1881.

Sources: Miller Center, Wikipedia, White House.gov, Potus.com

First Dogs

This article is about dogs in the White House- that is, the canines of the  former (and current) US Presidents.

 

Which presidents had dogs while in office? An easier question is which ones didn't. Of the 43 different people that have held the office, only the following did not have dogs: James Madison, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Martin van Buren, William Harrison, James Polk, Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore, Andrew Johnson, Chester Arthur, and William McKinley. In other words, 32 out of 43 presidents had dogs. And the last president who did not own a dog was our 25th president and served from 1897 to 1901.

   

It's not that surprising when you consider how much the United States adores its dogs. Even the old concept of a "nuclear family" often consists of two adults, two or three children, and a dog.

 

But is there significance to the furry friends living in the White House? Of course! Pets have helped shape a President's reputation.

For instance, Richard Nixon, who was being pressured from all sides to resign upon a financial scandal pre-Presidency, issued a speech entitled the Checker's Speech. In the televised speech, he denied claims of financial wrongdoing and worked in the topic of a dog that was gifted to him, a cocker spaniel named Checkers, talking affectionately of the canine. After the speech, public opinion of Richard Nixon dramatically rose, and Mamie Eisenhower described Nixon as a "such a warm person" following the speech. 

 

Additionally, LBJ's beagles, "Him" and "Her", may have damaged LBJ's reputation. Photographs came out of LBJ carrying the dogs by their ears. This sparked outrage from many US citizens and animal rights advocates, shocked to see the dogs handled so brutally by the Commander in Chief. However, former President Truman made clear his disagreement with the scandal, saying, "What the hell are the critics complaining about; that's how you handle hounds."

 

On the note of President Truman, he was gifted a dog named Feller in the Christmas of 1947. However, Truman had never asked for nor did he want the dog. He decided to give it away, which not only raised many people's feathers but led to an influx of mail from people asking to adopt the dog. Feller ended up being given to several different people over a period of time.

Noteworthy presidential dogs include the hounds of George Washington- the nation's first First Dogs. In fact, Washington was the 'father' of the American foxhound. He bred over 30 of them, three whom were named Drunkard, Tipler, and Tipsy.

 

Sources: Wikipedia, Time.com, Sheppard Software.com 

Hutt River

Monthly Micronation Monday! Today, we visit Hutt River in Australia.

At 18,500 acres, the size is nothing to sneeze it. At least, it's certainly more impressive than a small sea fort in the middle of the ocean (cough cough Sealand). The story behind this micronation of farmland? Prince Leonard Casley, 87 years old currently, seceded from Australia on April 21, 1970 due to new grain quotas. He claimed the quotas would deal quite a blow to his finances.



For this, Casley is seen as a sort of founding father to micro-secessionist movements. Many others followed in his footsteps. And there isn't much his micronation lacks... aside from recognition from a sovereign nation, of course. But Hutt River has a capital city, Nain, in which resides Leonard and his family, a consitution, a post office (complete with a Prince Leonard statue in front) and postal service, and its own currency. It also has its own passports.

 

Princess Shirley, Leonard's wife, passed away recently. A eulogy is available on the micronation's official website. Also on the website is an event calendar, which includes the celebration of Prince Leonard's 88th birthday to come later this August.

 

The Australian government has largely ignored all those who claimed to secede and become citizens of Hutt River. However, government social security, including war veteran benefits, were withdrawn from the seceders. Also, the National Museum of Australia has a section on "Separation" which mentions Hutt River.



Sources: Business Week.com, Wikipedia, Hutt-River-Province.com

Ulysses S. Grant

Ulysses S. Grant (born Hiram Ulysses Grant... the S stands for nothing, much like with Harry S Truman) was our 18th president.

During his predecessor's term, Grant accompanied President Johnson around the country to garner support, though Grant did not like Johnson and allied himself with the Radical Republicans for his campaign in 1868.

 

As former commander of all the Union armies, Grant was well-known and popular amongst the people. He also had a reputation as a very honest man, though his presidency would later be seen as rooted in scandal.

Many historians place Grant lowly amongst the presidential rankings due to what they see as an ineffectual presidency. Those who visited the White House saw Grant as weak and ineffectual, and his reputation as a drunk did not help matters. Then, his association with speculators Gould and Fisk brought him trouble, as the two sought to monopolize gold and Grant only realized and counteracted their plan after they had ruined businesses.

 
On top of everything, 1873 saw a worldwide depression beginning in Austria. This manifested in the USA in several ways- over-expansion of railroads and extreme speculation on the stock market brought the country into a panic. 

Nevertheless, he was elected to a second term.

After all, he was quite well liked for his hardline Republican platform. He oversaw reconstruction of the South with military enforcement. He was strongly for civil rights, and he won passage of the 15th amendment that allowed African Americans to vote. The Ku Klux Klan act, also passed by him, let the Presidetn "arrest and break up disguised night marauders."

These same policies that made him popular in the North made him despised in the South. After Grant won reelection, he received notice of Southern states threatening to secede again. A relocation of troops shut down these threats.

And unfortunately, the gold fiasco was not the only scandal to plague the Grant administration. Fraud, overtaxing and bribes were common amongst big businesses, and even the Attorney General and several White House Secretaries.

 

He was one of a few Presidents who sought a third term, but he did not win. The presidency that year, 1880, went to James A. Garfield.



Sources: Wikipedia, Miller Center, Biography.com, The White House.gov

Japanese Constitution

After World War II, the victorious Allies were able to divide and decide the political fate of the Axis Powers and their conquered territories. This includes the USA drafting Japan's new constitution post-war, which Japan accepted with only minor revisions. In the 60-70 years since, the foreign-drafted constitution has seen very few changes.

 

One enormous change to Japan's political structure, as outlined by the new document, switched Japan to a parliamentary system while retaining the emperor. However, the emperor became merely a figurehead with no real power.

Also shockingly, the constitution forbid Japan to wage war, a provision that has stood unchallenged since its formation. The document detailed that "Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes," a seemingly permanent restriction on the right to wage war.

In a similar vein, the constitution stated that "land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained". This stood until 2005, where it was moderately amended to allow a defense force.

Most of the American bill of rights was transferred to the Japanese constitution as well, including 39 articles on "basic human liberties" such as adult suffrage, unions, and marriage and property rights for women. However, the UN has raised some complaints about the enforcing of these articles. 

And how has such a restrictive document formed by a foreign power governed a developed country for so long? Despite Article 96's assertion that amendments can be added to any part of the constitution, the actual process is arduous. Two-thirds of each house of the Diet must approve of the proposed amendment before a referendum can be held. In that referendum, a majority needs to ratify the amendment before it can be added. This certainly contributed to how no amendments have been added since the constitution's conception, though existing amendments have been revised once or twice.

 

Time will only tell if this constitution continues to uphold Japan or if it will see further and more extreme revisions. The Japanese Liberal Democratic Party consistently lists constitution revision as part of its platform. For however the constitution was formed and for whatever reason it was formed, it has stood largely uncontested for several decades.



 Sources: Wikipedia, PBS, Solon.org

Ferdinand Magellan

Ferdinand Magellan, born in 1480 in northern Portugal, led the first expedition around the earth and named the Pacific Ocean (peaceful sea). He convinced Charles I of Spain (Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire) to fund an expedition to find the 'East Indies,' or the "Spice Islands," where Indonesia's modern day Maluku Islands are located.

 

Magellan was an avid explorer even before his famous journey. He sailed to India and the far East, amongst other places. However, he was wrongly accused for trading illegally with the Moors and he also quarreled with King Manuel I of Portugal over funds for a journey to the Spice Islands. He therefore sought employment and allegiance with Spain over his native country. The two Iberian countries competed fiercely during the Age of Exploration.



The 5 ships, the Trinidad, San Antonio, Concepcion, Victoria, and Santiago, set off in September 1519. Only one returned in September 1522, with only 18 of the original 270 crewmembers, Magellan not among them. He had been killed in an altercation with Filipino natives when he stopped at the Island of Mactan. His journey for the Spice Islands brought him many places around the world, including Chile and Guam. When the lone shipVictoria returned, it was commanded by Juan Sebastián del Cano. 

 

 Along with being credited as the first to circumnavigate the earth and naming the Pacific Ocean, he also discovered what is now called the Strait of Magellan and named the Tierra del Fuego. Additionally, Magellanic Clouds in space are named such as his crew is believed to be the first to view them. 




Sources: Wikipedia, Geography.about.com, Biography.com, Enchanted Learning.com

Sino-Soviet Relations

When asked to name former and existing communist nations, the USSR and China jump to mind. And the ideological battle behind the Cold War was, fundamentally, capitalism vs. communism. But that might provide a united image unfitting of the relationship between the top Cold War communist powers. The relationship has been much more up and down.

In 1937, when World War II broke out on the Asian front, the USSR and China formed a non-aggression pact. China had been undergoing a civil war between the Nationalists and the Communists, though the fighting postponed once Japan invaded Manchuria. Throughout China's civil war, the USA had been funding the Nationalists while the USSR funded the Communists. In 1949, the Communists took control of the country. China and the USSR now had the "Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance." Reportedly, Stalin did not like Mao when the two met, but the leader's less-than-friendly relationship did not appear to interfere with international relations. 



The two nations held a close relationship through shared ideology as well as mutual benefits- the USSR had continued control of naval bases such as Luda while China received military supplies and economic and technological aid. The USSR showed its support for China by boycotting UN meetings as long as the UN recognized the Republic of China (Taiwan) instead of the People's Republic of China. China also led the brunt of the Communist fighting during the Korean War, in which Communist North Korea invaded non-Communist South Korea. This period following the war marked the closest  China had ever been with a foreign country.

 However, following Stalin's death, a rift began to form. Khrushchev, once in power, began a process known as de-Stalinization to condemn the previous leader's actions, and he began forging closer relations with the Western powers. A number of further issues irritated the Chinese government, including the Soviet's lack of involvement with the Sino-Indian war and its empty promise to share nuclear technology with China. Following the extremely radical Great Leap Forward, a Communist economic strategy that ended in disaster and famine, all Soviet officials withdrew from China. Conflicting territorial claims on top of everything else led to the two nations to armed clashes.

 

The two severed diplomatic ties in 1966, and did not resume them until 1987. In the 1980s, still wary of the Soviet Union but dismissing the USSR as an immediate threat, China offered to resume relations once 3 conditions were met: Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, Soviet support for Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia, and Soviet military presence on the Sino-Soviet border and in Mongolia. The USSR refused to discuss these conditions for the first half of the decade. 

Around the time that Brezhnev, Andropov, and Chernenko died, allowing new leadership to surface in the USSR, Sino-Soviet relations were improving. On the issue of economics and borders, the two countries were becoming much more open and friendly. Delegation exchanged resumed regularly. Gorbachev further mended the rift with his promise to hold discussions with China "at any time and at any level."

 

Sources: Ibiblio.org, fmprc.gov.cn, Country Studies.us,